A carboxylic acid ester. R and R' denote any alkyl or aryl group

A phosphoric acid ester

Esters are a class of chemical compounds and functional groups. Esters consist of an inorganic or organic acid in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl (alkoxy) group. Some acids that are commonly esterified are carboxylic acids, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and boric acid. Volatile esters, particularly carboxylate esters, often have a pleasant smell and are found in perfumes, essential oils, and pheromones, and give many fruits their scent. Ethyl acetate and methyl acetate are important solvents; fatty acid esters form fat and lipids; phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules; nitrate esters are known for their explosive properties (best known: nitroglycerin) and polyesters are important plastics. Cyclic esters are called lactones. The name "ester" is derived from the German Essig-Äther (literally: vinegar ether), an old name for ethyl acetate. Esters can be synthesized in a condensation reaction between an acid and an alcohol in a reaction known as esterification.

[edit] Nomenclature

An ester is named according to the two parts that make it up: the part from the alcohol and the part from the acid (in that order), for example ethyl ethanoate (see image below).

Since most esters, or carbonate, are derived from carboxylic acids, a specific nomenclature is used for them. For esters derived from the simplest carboxylic acids, the traditional name for the acid constituent is generally retained, e.g., formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate.^[1] For esters from more complex carboxylic acids, the systematic name for the acid is used, followed by the suffix -oate. For example, methyl formate is the ester of methanol and methanoic acid (formic acid): the simplest ester. It could also be called methyl methanoate.^[2]

Esters of aromatic acids are also encountered, including benzoates such as methyl benzoate, and phthalates, with substitution allowed in the name.

The chemical formulas of esters are typically in the format of R-COO-R', in which the alkyl group (R') is mentioned first, and the carboxylate group (R) is mentioned last.^[3] For example the ester: butyl ethanoate - derived from butanol (C₄H₉OH) and ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH) would have the formula: CH₃COOC₄H₉. Sometimes the formula may be 'broken up' to show the structure, in this case: CH₃COO[CH₂]₃CH₃.

[edit] Physical properties

Esters participate in hydrogen bonds as hydrogen-bond acceptors, but cannot act as hydrogen-bond donors, unlike their parent alcohols. This ability to participate in hydrogen bonding makes them more water-soluble than their parent hydrocarbons. However, the limitations on their hydrogen bonding also make them more hydrophobic than either their parent alcohols or their parent acids. Their lack of hydrogen-bond-donating ability means that ester molecules cannot hydrogen-bond to each other, which, in general, makes esters more volatile than a carboxylic acid of similar molecular weight. This property makes them very useful in organic analytical chemistry: Unknown organic acids with low volatility can often be esterified into a volatile ester, which can then be analyzed using gas chromatography, gas liquid chromatography, or mass spectrometry. Many esters have distinctive odors, which has led to their use as artificial flavorings and fragrances. For example:

Ester Name	Structure	Odor or Occurrence
Allyl hexanoate		pineapple
Benzyl acetate		pear, strawberry, jasmine
Bornyl acetate		pine tree flavor
Butyl butyrate		pineapple
Ethyl acetate		nail polish remover, model paint, model airplane glue
Ethyl butyrate		banana, pineapple, strawberry
Ethyl hexanoate		pineapple,waxy-green banana
Ethyl cinnamate		cinnamon
Ethyl formate		lemon, rum, strawberry
Ethyl heptanoate		apricot, cherry, grape, raspberry
Ethyl isovalerate		apple
Ethyl lactate		butter, cream
Ethyl nonanoate		grape
Ethyl pentanoate		apple
Geranyl acetate		geranium
Geranyl butyrate		cherry
Geranyl pentanoate		apple
Isobutyl acetate		cherry, raspberry, strawberry
Isobutyl formate		raspberry
Isoamyl acetate		pear, banana (flavoring in Pear drops)
Isopropyl acetate		fruity
Linalyl acetate		lavender, sage
Linalyl butyrate		peach
Linalyl formate		apple, peach
Methyl acetate		glue
Methyl anthranilate		grape, jasmine
Methyl benzoate		fruity, ylang ylang, feijoa
Methyl benzyl acetate		cherry
Methyl butyrate (methyl butanoate)		pineapple, apple
Methyl cinnamate		strawberry
Methyl pentanoate (methyl valerate)		flowery
Methyl phenylacetate		honey
Methyl salicylate (oil of wintergreen)		root beer, wintergreen, Germolene and Ralgex ointments (UK)
Nonyl caprylate		orange
Octyl acetate		fruity-orange
Octyl butyrate		parsnip
Amyl acetate (pentyl acetate)		apple, banana
Pentyl butyrate (amyl butyrate)		apricot, pear, pineapple
Pentyl hexanoate (amyl caproate)		apple, pineapple
Pentyl pentanoate (amyl valerate)		apple
Propyl ethanoate		pear
Propyl isobutyrate		rum
Terpenyl butyrate		cherry

[edit] Ester synthesis

"Esterification" (condensation of an alcohol and an acid) is not the only way to synthesize an ester. Esters can be prepared in the laboratory in a number of other ways:

• Transesterifications between other esters
• Dieckmann condensation or Claisen condensation of esters carrying acidic α-protons
• Favorskii rearrangement of α-haloketones in presence of base
• Nucleophilic displacement of alkyl halides with carboxylic acid salts
• Nucleophilic displacement of acyl halides with alcohols
• Baeyer-Villiger oxidation of ketones with peroxides
• Pinner reaction of nitriles with an alcohol

[edit] Ester reactions

Ester saponification (basic hydrolysis)

Esters react in a number of ways:

• Esters may undergo hydrolysis - the breakdown of an ester by water. This process can be catalyzed both by acids and bases. The base-catalyzed process is called saponification. The hydrolysis yields an alcohol and a carboxylic acid or its carboxylate salt.
• Esters also react if heated with primary or secondary amines, producing amides.
• Phenyl esters react to hydroxyarylketones in the Fries rearrangement.
• Di-esters such as diethyl malonate react as nucleophile with alkyl halides in the malonic ester synthesis after deprotonation.
• Specific esters are functionalized with an α-hydroxyl group in the Chan rearrangement.
• Esters are converted to isocyanates through intermediate hydroxamic acids in the Lossen rearrangement.
• Esters with β-hydrogen atoms can be converted to alkenes in ester pyrolysis.

[edit] External links

• An introduction to esters
• Molecule of the month: Ethyl acetate and other esters
• Making an Ester A simple guide to naming and making esters, as well as the chemistry behind it.
• An example of esters commercial application

[edit] References

1. ^ IUPAC parent groups using traditional names
2. ^ IUPAC naming of esters
3. ^ http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_511.htm